Marco Polo: Béda antarrépisi

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In 1259, the two brothers lived in the Venetian quarter of [[Constantinople]], where they enjoyed [[Extraterritoriality|political privileges and tax relief]] because of their country’s role in establishing the [[Latin Empire]] in the [[Fourth Crusade]] of 1204. But the family judged the political situation of the city precarious, so they decided to transfer their business northeast to [[Sudak|Soldaia]], a city in [[Crimea]]. Their decision proved wise. Constantinople was recaptured in 1261 by [[Michael VIII Palaeologus|Michael Palaeologus]], the ruler of the [[Empire of Nicaea]], who quickly burned the Venetian quarter.<ref name="zorzi">Zorzi, Alvise, ''Vita di Marco Polo veneziano'', Rusconi Editore, 1982</ref> Captured Venetian citizens were blinded,<ref name="zorzi"/> while many of those who managed to escape perished aboard overloaded refugee ships fleeing to other Venetian colonies in the [[Aegean Sea]].
 
As their new home on the north rim of the [[Black Sea]], Soldaia had been frequented by Venetian traders since the 12th century. The [[Mongol]] army sacked it in 1223, but the city had never been definitively conquered until 1239, when it became a part of the newly formed Mongol state known as the [[Golden Horde]]. Searching for better profits, the Polos continued their journey to [[Sarai (city)|Sarai]], where the court of [[Berke|Berke Khan]], the ruler of the Golden Horde, was located. At that time, the city of Sarai &mdash; already visited by [[William of Rubruck]] a few years earlier &mdash; was no more than a huge encampment, and the Polos stayed for about a year. Finally, they decided to avoid Crimea, because of a civil war between Berke and his cousin [[Hulagu Khan|Hulagu]] or perhaps because of the bad relationship between Berke Khan and the [[Byzantine Empire]]. Instead, they moved further east to [[Bukhara]], in modern day [[Uzbekistan]], where the family lived and traded for three years.
 
In 1264, Nicolò and Maffio joined up with an embassy sent by the [[Ilkhan]] Hulagu to his brother, the Grand Khan Kublai. In 1266, they reached the seat of the Grand Khan in the Mongol capital [[Khanbaliq]], now known as [[Beijing]], [[China]].
 
In his book, ''Il Milione'', Marco explains how Kublai officially received the Polos and sent them back &mdash; with a Mongol named Koeketei as an ambassador to the [[Pope]]. They brought with them a letter from the Khan requesting educated people to come and teach [[Christianity]] and Western customs to his people, as well as the ''paiza'', a golden tablet a foot long and three inches wide, authorizing the holder to require and obtain lodging, horses and food throughout the Great Khan's dominion. Koeketei left in the middle of the journey, leaving the Polos to travel alone to [[Ayas (city)|Ayas]] in the [[Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia]]. From that port city, they sailed to [[City of Acre|Saint Jean d'Acre]], capital of the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]].
 
The long ''[[sede vacante]]'' &mdash; between the death of [[Pope Clement IV]], in 1268, and the election of [[Pope Gregory X]], in 1271 &mdash; prevented the Polos from fulfilling Kublai’s request. As suggested by Theobald Visconti, papal legate for the realm of Egypt, in Acres for the [[Ninth Crusade]], the two brothers returned to Venice in 1269 or 1270, waiting for the nomination of the new Pope.
 
== The voyages of Marco ==
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Marco Polo was later captured in a minor clash of the war between Venice and [[Genoa]], or in the [[Battle of Curzola|naval battle of Curzola]], according to a dubious tradition. He spent the few months of his imprisonment, in 1298, dictating to a fellow prisoner, [[Rustichello da Pisa]], a detailed account of his travels in the then-unknown parts of the Far East.
 
His book, ''Il Milione'' (the title comes from either "The [[Million]]", then considered a gigantic number, or from Polo's family nickname ''Emilione''), was written in [[Old French]] and entitled ''Le divisament dou monde'' ("The description of the world"). The book was soon translated into many European languages and is known in English as ''[[The Travels of Marco Polo]]''. The original is lost and there are now several often-conflicting versions of the translations. The book became an instant success &mdash; quite an achievement in a time when printing was not known in Europe.
 
==Later life==
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According to a famous story, a priest begged Marco on his deathbed to confess that he had lied in his stories. Marco refused, insisting, "I have not told half of what I saw!" This anecdote is an example of the skepticism that welcomed Marco's tales during his life.
 
In recent times, while most historians believe Marco Polo did reach China, some have proposed he did not get that far and only retold information he had heard from others. Those skeptics point out that among other omissions, his account fails to mention [[Chinese characters|Chinese writing]], [[chopsticks]], [[tea]], [[foot binding]] or the [[Great Wall of China|Great Wall]] (although in the last case this should not be surprising given that the wall was not built at its present location until the [[Ming Dynasty]]). Also, Chinese records of the time do not mention him, despite the fact that he claimed to have served as a special emissary for [[Kublai Khan]]&mdash;which—which is puzzling, given the careful record-keeping in China at that time.
 
On the other hand, Marco describes other aspects of Far Eastern life in much detail: [[Banknote|paper money]], the [[Grand Canal of China|Grand Canal]], the structure of a Mongol army, [[tiger]]s, the Imperial postal system. He also refers to Japan by its Chinese name "[[Jipangu|Zipang]]" or Cipangu. This is usually considered the first mention of [[Japan]] in Western literature. However, it is possible that Marco heard of these things from Arab [[silk road]] traders. Trade between the Middle East and Far East was flourishing and travellers are often happy to retell stories of their ventures in great detail.
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*[[Daptar jalma dina perangko Irlandia]]
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== Tumbu luar ==
* {{dmoz|Society/History/By_Topic/Exploration/Explorers/Polo,_Marco/|Marco Polo}}
* [http://www.silk-road.com/artl/marcopolo.shtml Marco Polo Travels]
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* {{gutenberg author| id=Marco+Polo | name=Marco Polo}}
 
== Rujukan ==
<references/>
:* Hart, Henry H., ''Marco Polo, Venetian Adventurer'', University of Oklahoma Press, 1967
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:* Wood, Frances, ''Did Marco Polo Go to China?'', Westview Press, 1995
:* Yule, Henry (Ed.), ''The Travels of Marco Polo'', Dover Publications, New York, 1983 [new edition of: London, 1870]
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