Mohandas Gandhi: Béda antarrépisi

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'''Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi''' ([[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]: મોહનદાસ કરમચંદ ગાંધી; [[Hindi language|Hindi]]: मोहन्दास करमचंद गांधी, Pronunciation-IPA: / {{IPA|moːhənd̪aːs kərəmtʃənd̪ gaːnd̪ʰiː}} / ) ([[2 Oktober]] [[1869]] – [[30 Januari]], [[1948]]) salah saurang politikus utama jeung pamingpin spiritual [[India]] jeung [[Indian independence movement|gerakan kamerdekaan India]]. Gandhi pionir<ref>[[Wikisource: The Birth of Satyagraha]] : From The Story of my Experiments with Truth, by Mohandas K. Gandhi</ref> tur panutur ''[[Satyagraha]]'' — ngalawan ku cara [[civil disobedience|teu nurut]] babarengan dumasar kana [[ahimsa]] (bajoang [[non-violence|teu make kekerasan]]) nu jadi salah sahiji filosofi sumanget dina Gerakan Kamerdekaan India, tur jadi inspirasi gerakan keur hak asasi jeung kamerdakaan di dunya. Gandhi ilahar jeung kawentar boh di India atawa di dunya ku ngaran '''Mahatma Gandhi''' (Hindi: महात्मा, / {{IPA|məhatma}} /; tina [[Sanskrit|Basa Sansakerta]], ''[[Mahatma]]'': ''Great Soul'') nyaetanyaéta ''Bapu'' (dina [[languages of India|Basa India]], ''Bapak'').
 
Salah saurang ahli hukum didikan Inggris, Gandhi mimiti ngusulkeun idena keur bajoang sipil ku cara damey di komunitas perjuangan India keur hak asasi di [[South Africa|Afrika Kidul]]. Sanggeus mulang ka India, Gandhi ngumpulkeun patani miskin jeung buruh keur protes kana "penindasan" pajak jeung diskriminasi. Mingpin [[Indian National Congress|Kongres Nasional India]], Gandhi ngayakeun kampanye keur ngurangan kamiskinan, ngabebaskeunngabébaskeun awewe India, babarayaan antara komunitas nu beda kapercayaan jeung etnis, ngeureunkeun [[untouchability|perbudakan]] jeung diskriminasi kasta, sarta minuhan kabutuhan ekonomi nasional sorangan, sakabehsakabéh diluhur keur ''[[Swaraj]]'' — kamerdakaan India tina dominasi bangsa asing. Gandhi kawentar mingpin dina nolak pajeg uyah ku cara cara 400 kilometer (248 miles) [[Salt Satyagraha|Dandi Salt March]] dina 1930, sarta menta sacara terbuka ka Inggris keur ''[[Quit India|Kaluar India]]'' dina taun 1942. Gandhi meakeunméakeun umur hirup keur kadameyan tur hirup tumuwuh babarengan antara [[Hindus]], [[Muslims]] jeung [[Sikhs]].
 
Salila bajoangna, Gandhi konsisten bajoang [[non-violence|tanpa kekerasan]] jeung [[truth|kebenaran]] sanajan dina kaayaan ekstrim. Gandhi jadi mahasiswa [[Hindu philosophy|filosofi Hindu]] sarta hirup sederhana, "mengelola" [[ashram]] nyaetanyaéta minuhan kabutuhan sorangan. Gandhi nyieun baju ku sorangan — baju tradisional Indian [[dhoti]] jeung shawl, tinun makemaké [[charkha]] — sarta hirup diet salaku [[vegetarian]]. Gandhi remen [[fasts|puasa]] — pantang tina dahareun tur cai dina waktu nu lila — keur pembersihan diri tur nandakeun protes. Kahirupan jeung ajaran Gandhi mere ilham keur [[Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.]], [[Steve Biko]] jeung [[Aung San Suu Kyi]] sarta [[American civil rights movement|gerakan hak asasi sipil Amerika]], perjuangan hak asasi manusa di Afrika Kidul jeung [[Myanmar]]. Kritikna kana sababaraha aspek modernisasi kulon (saperti [[technology|tehnologi]] jeung [[industrialization|industrialisasi]] modern) ogeogé nambahn reputasina dina [[development criticism|ngawangun kritik]] nu jadi inspirasi pamikir politik saterusna.
 
Gandhi diberedibéré gelar ''[[Father of the Nation|Bapak Nasional]]'' India, gelar mimitina [[Subhash Chandra Bose]] [http://www.gandhi-manibhavan.org/main/q1.htm] <ref>^ "Father of Our Nation" (Address to Mahatma Gandhi over the Rangoon Radio on 6th July 1944) The Essential Writings of Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose Edited by Sisir K Bose & Sugata Bose (Delhi: Oxford University Press) 1997 pp301-2 </ref>. Ulang taun Gandhi dina [[2 Oktober]] dieling-eling salaku '''Gandhi Jayanti''', sarta jadi [[holidays in India|poe libur nasional]].
 
== Awal kahirupan ==
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'''Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi''' lahir ti kulawarga [[Hindu]] [[Modh]] [[Vanik]] di [[Porbandar]], [[Gujarat]], India taun 1869. Gandhi putra ti Karamchand Gandhi, ''[[Diwan (title)|diwan]]'' (Menteri Kepala) Porbandar, jeung Putlibai, istri kaopat Karamchand, runtuyan Hindu Pranami [[Vaishnava]]. Dua istri Karamchand mimiti, boga dua baraya awewe, maotna ku alesan nu teu dipikanyaho (rumorna waktu ngalahirkeun). Istri katilu teu daya upaya tur ngidinan ka Karamchand keur kawin deui. Hirup tumuwuh jeung indung nu taat tur dikurilingan ku pangaruh [[Jainism|Jain]] Gujarat, Gandhi diajar ti umur nu leuwih ngora kahirupan teu nganyenyeri, [[vegetarianism|vegetarian]], [[fasting|puasa]] keur ngabersihkeun diri, tur toleran ka rupa-rupa agama jeung sekte. Gandhi lahir dina ''[[vaishya]]'', ataw [[caste|kasta]] padagang.
[[Gambar:Gandhi and Kasturbhai 1902.jpg|left|thumb|240px|Gandhi jeung istrina [[Kasturba Gandhi|Kasturba]] (1902)]]
Dina Mei 1883, waktu umur 13 taun, Gandhi geus nikah dijodokeun ku kolotna ka [[Kasturba Gandhi|Kasturba Makhanji]] (dieja "Kasturbai" disebut "Ba"), nu umurna sarua. Maranehna boga 4 putra: [[Harilal Gandhi]], lahir taun 1888; [[Manilal Gandhi]], lahir taun 1892; [[Ramdas Gandhi]], lahir taun 1897; jeun [[Devdas Gandhi]], lahir taun 1900. Gandhi kaasup mahasiswa cukup di Porbandar jeung [[Rajkot]]. Gandhi lulus [[Matriculation|ujian matrikulasi]] keur [[University of Bombay]] dina 1887, numana asup ka Samaldas College. Gandhi teu betah di ieu college, sabab kulawargna hayang Gandhi jadi [[barrister|pengacara]]. Manehna ngamangpaatkuen kasempetan keur sakola di [[England|Inggris]], nu ceuk pamikirna "taneuh para [[philosopher]] jeung sastrawan, pusat sagala kahirupan sipil."
 
Umur 18 taun dina [[4 September]] [[1888]], Gandhi asup ka [[University College London]] keur dilatih jadi [[barrister|pengacara]]. Basa di [[London, United Kingdom|London]], ibukota Karajaan, geus dipangaruhan ku ajaran ti ibuna keur jadi [[Jainism|Jain monk]] Becharji, salila ninggalkeun India patuh kana prinsip Hindu keur teu dahar daging, alkohol, sarta bandel. Sanajan Gandhi diajarkeun kana kabiasaan "urang Inggris" — diajar dansa contona — manehna teu bisa dahar daging domba jeung kubis ibu kosna. Ibu kosna nunjukeun rumah makan vegetarian di London. Kahirupanna sajalan jeung kahayang indungna, manehna maca ngeunaan kamampuan intelek [[vegetarianism|vegetarian]]. Manehna gabung jeung [[Vegetarian Society|Kumpulan Vegetarian]], sarta kapilih jadi komite eksekutif tur ngadegkeun kleub lokal. Manehna ngaku loba meunang pangalaman salila ngurus ieu organisasi. Sababarha vegetarian nu papanggih nyaetanyaéta anggota [[Theosophical Society|Pakumpulan Teosofical]], di didirikeun dina taun 1875 keur ngamajukeun babarayaan jeung nalungtik literatur [[Buddhist|Budha]] sarta Hindu [[Brahman|Brahma]]. Maranehna nyarankeun Gandhi keur maca ''[[Bhagavad Gita]].'' Teu nempo kana sabageansabagéan nu dipikaresrp dina agama samemehnasaméméhna, Gandhi loba maca buku ngeunaan [[Hinduism|Hindu]], [[Christianity|Kristen]], [[Buddhism|Budha]], [[Islam]] jeung agama sejennaséjénna. Manehna mulang ka India sanggeus ditrarima di [[bar association|bar]] [[England and Wales|Inggris jeung Wales]], tapi ngan saeutik kasuksesan dina praktek hukumna di [[Bombay]], saterusna daptar sarta ditolak keur gawe paruh waktu jadi guru di sakola menengah. Gandhi mulang ka Rajkot keur nyieun draft petisi tapi dipaksa nutup bisnisna saperti basa rek gawe di kantor Inggris. Dina catetan hirupna, Gandhi ngajelaskeu kajadian ieu salaku kagagalan dina lobi ka baraya nu leuwih kolot. Dina kaayaan ieu nyaetanyaéta (taun 1893) ditarima keur kontrak panjang di parusahaan India keur dikirim ka [[KwaZulu-Natal Province|Natal]], [[South Africa|Afrika Kidul]].
 
== Gerakan hak asasi manusa di Afrika Kidul (1893–1914) ==
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==Fighting for Indian independence (1916–1945)==
{{See also|Indian Independence Movement}}
As he had done in the [[South African War]], Gandhi urged support of the British in [[World War I]] and was active in encouraging Indians to join the army. His rationale, opposed by many others, was that if he desired the full citizenship, freedoms and rights in the Empire, it would be wrong not to help in its defence. He spoke at the conventions of the [[Indian National Congress]], but was primarily introduced to Indian issues, politics and the Indian people by [[Gopal Krishna Gokhale]], at the time one of the most respected leaders of the Congress Party.
 
===Champaran and Kheda===
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===Non-cooperation===
In [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], the [[Jallianwala Bagh massacre]] of civilians by British troops caused deep trauma to the nation, and increased public anger and acts of violence. Gandhi criticized both the actions of the [[British]], and the retaliatory violence of Indians. He authored the resolution offering condolences to British civilian victims and condemning the riots, which after initial opposition in the party, was accepted after Gandhi made an emotional speech pushing forth his principle that all violence was evil and could not be justified.<ref>R. Gandhi, ''Patel: A Life'', pp. 82</ref> But it was after the massacre and violence that Gandhi's mind focused upon obtaining complete self-government and control of all Indian government institutions, maturing soon into ''[[Swaraj]]'' or complete individual, spiritual, political independence. Gandhi was invested with executive authority on behalf of the [[Indian National Congress]] in December 1921. Under Gandhi's leadership, the Congress was reorganized with a new constitution, with the goal of ''Swaraj''. Membership in the party was opened to anyone prepared to pay a token fee. A hierarchy of committees was set up to improve discipline, transforming the party from an elite organization to one of mass national appeal. Gandhi expanded his non-violence platform to include the [[Swadeshi movement|''swadeshi'' policy]] – the boycott of foreign-made goods, especially British goods. Linked to this was his advocacy that ''khadi'' (homespun cloth) be worn by all Indians instead of British-made textiles. Gandhi exhorted Indian men and women, rich or poor, to spend time each day spinning ''khadi'' in support of the independence movement.<ref>R. Gandhi, ''Patel: A Life'', pp. 89</ref> This was a strategy to inculcate discipline and dedication to weed out the unwilling and ambitious, and include women in the movement at a time when many thought that such activities were not "respectable" for women. In addition to boycotting British products, Gandhi urged the people to boycott British educational institutions and law courts, to resign from government employment, and to forsake British titles and [[British honours system|honours]].
 
"Non-cooperation" enjoyed wide-spread appeal and success, increasing excitement and participation from all strata of Indian society, yet just as the movement reached its apex, it ended abruptly as a result of a violent clash in the town of [[Chauri Chaura]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], in February 1922. Fearing that the movement was about to take a turn towards violence, and convinced that this would be the undoing of all his work, Gandhi called off the campaign of mass civil disobedience.<ref>R. Gandhi, ''Patel: A Life'', pp. 105</ref> Gandhi was arrested on [[March 10]], [[1922]], tried for sedition, and sentenced to six years. Beginning on [[March 18]], [[1922]], he only served about two years of the sentence, being released in February 1924 after an operation for [[appendicitis]]. Without Gandhi's uniting personality, the Indian National Congress began to splinter during his years in prison, splitting into two factions, one led by [[Chitta Ranjan Das]] and [[Motilal Nehru]] favouring party participation in the legislatures, and the other led by [[Chakravarti Rajagopalachari]] and [[Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel]], opposing this move. Furthermore, cooperation among Hindus and Muslims, which had been strong at the height of the nonviolence campaign, was breaking down. Gandhi attempted to bridge these differences through many means, including a three-week fast in the autumn of 1924, but with limited success.<ref>R. Gandhi, ''Patel: A Life'', pp. 131</ref>
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{{Main|Partition of India}}
[[Image:Jinnah Gandhi.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]] (left) with Mahatma Gandhi (right) in Bombay (now [[Mumbai]]) in 1944.]]
Gandhi advised the Congress to reject the proposals the [[British Cabinet Mission]] offered in 1946, as he was deeply suspicious of the ''grouping'' proposed for Muslim-majority states — Gandhi viewed this as a precursor to partition. However, this became one of the few times the Congress broke from Gandhi's advice (not his leadership though), as Nehru and Patel knew that if the Congress did not approve the plan, the control of government would pass to the [[Muslim League]]. Between 1946 and 1947, over 5,000 people were killed in violence. Gandhi was vehemently opposed to any plan that partitioned India into two separate countries. Many Muslims in India lived side by side with Hindus and Sikhs, and were in favour of a united India. But [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]], the leader of the Muslim League, commanded widespread support in [[Punjab, Pakistan|West Punjab]], [[Sindh]], [[NWFP]] and [[East Bengal]]. The partition plan was approved by the Congress leadership as the only way to prevent a wide-scale Hindu-Muslim civil war. Congress leaders knew that Gandhi would viscerally oppose partition, and it was impossible for the Congress to go ahead without his agreement, for Gandhi's support in the party and throughout India was strong. Gandhi's closest colleagues had accepted partition as the best way out, and [[Sardar Patel]] endeavoured to convince Gandhi that it was the only way to avoid civil war. A devastated Gandhi gave his assent.
 
On the day of the transfer of power, Gandhi did not celebrate independence with the rest of India, but was alone in [[Calcutta]], mourning the partition and working to end the violence. After India's independence, Gandhi focused on Hindu-Muslim peace and unity. He conducted extensive dialogue with Muslim and Hindu community leaders, working to cool passions in northern India, as well as in [[Bengal]]. Despite the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1947]], he was troubled when the Government decided to deny Pakistan the [[Indian Rupee|Rs.]] 55 [[crore]]s due as per agreements made by the Partition Council. Leaders like [[Sardar Patel]] feared that Pakistan would use the money to bankroll the war against India. Gandhi was also devastated when demands resurged for all Muslims to be deported to Pakistan, and when Muslim and Hindu leaders expressed frustration and an inability to come to terms with one another.<ref>R. Gandhi, ''Patel: A Life'', pp. 462</ref> He launched his last fast-unto-death in [[Delhi]], asking that all communal violence be ended once and for all, and that the payment of Rs. [[Indian numbering system|55 crores]] be made to Pakistan. Gandhi feared that instability and insecurity in Pakistan would increase their anger against India, and violence would spread across the borders. He further feared that Hindus and Muslims would renew their enmity and precipitate into an open civil war. After emotional debates with his life-long colleagues, Gandhi refused to budge, and the Government rescinded its policy and made the payment to Pakistan. Hindu, Muslim and Sikh community leaders, including the [[RSS]] and [[Hindu Mahasabha]] assured him that they would renounce violence and call for peace. Gandhi thus broke his fast by sipping orange juice.<ref>R. Gandhi, ''Patel: A Life'', pp. 464-66</ref>
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{{See also|Gandhism}}
===Truth===
Gandhi dedicated his life to the wider purpose of discovering [[truth]], or ''[[Satya]]''. He tried to achieve this by learning from his own mistakes and conducting experiments on himself. He named his autobiography ''[[The Story of My Experiments with Truth]]''.
 
Gandhi said that the most important battle to fight was in overcoming his own demons, fears and insecurities. Gandhi summarized his beliefs first when he said "[[God]] is Truth," but as typical of Gandhi, he evolved, later to correct himself and state that "Truth is God." The first statement seemed insufficient to Gandhi, as the mistake could be made that Gandhi was using Truth as a description of God, rather than the summative definition of the entire essence of God. ''Satya'' (Truth) in Gandhi's philosophy is God. It shares all the characteristics of the Hindu concept of God, or [[Brahman]].
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:"As soon as we lose the moral basis, we cease to be religious. There is no such thing as religion over-riding morality. Man, for instance, cannot be untruthful, cruel or incontinent and claim to have God on his side."
 
:"The sayings of [[Muhammad]] are a treasure of wisdom, not only for Muslims but for all of mankind."
 
Later in his life when he was asked whether he was a Hindu, he replied:
 
:"Yes I am. I am also a Christian, a Muslim, a Buddhist and a Jew."
 
In spite of their deep reverence to each other, Gandhi and [[Rabindranath Tagore]] got involved in protracted debates more than once. These debates exemplify the philosophical differences between the two most famous Indians at the time. On [[January 15]] [[1934]], an earthquake hit [[Bihar]] and caused extensive damage and loss of life. Gandhi maintained this was because of the sin committed by upper caste [[Hindu]]s by not letting untouchables in their temples (Gandhi was committed to the cause of improving the fate of untouchables, referring to them as Harijans, people of [[Krishna]]). [[Tagore]] vehemently opposed Gandhi's stance, maintaining that an earthquake can only be caused by natural forces, not moral reasons, however repugnant the practice of untouchability may be.
 
==Criticism==
Throughout his life and after his death, Gandhi has evoked serious criticism. [[B. R. Ambedkar]], the [[Dalit (outcaste)|Dalit]] political leader condemned Gandhi's terming the untouchable community as ''Harijans'', which he found condescending. Ambedkar and his allies also felt Gandhi was undermining Dalit political rights. [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]] and contemporary Pakistanis often condemn Gandhi for undermining Muslim political rights. [[Vinayak Damodar Savarkar]] condemned Gandhi for ''appeasing'' Muslims politically — Savarkar and his allies blamed Gandhi for thus facilitating the creation of Pakistan and increasing the influence of the Muslim community in politics beyond proportion. Savarkar himself was implicated in the trial following Gandhi's murder, as he was the mentor of the assassin Nathuram Godse and an important Hindu Mahasabha leader. In contemporary times, historians like [[Ayesha Jalal]] blame Gandhi and the Congress for being unwilling to share power with Muslims and thus hastening partition. Hindu political activists like [[Pravin Togadia]] and [[Narendra Modi]] have been known to criticize Gandhi's leadership and actions.
 
Gandhi has also been criticized by various historians and commentators for his attitudes regarding [[Hitler]] and [[Nazism]]. Gandhi apparently believed that Hitler's hatred could be transformed by the application of non-violent resistance. Gandhi has come under fire in particular for statements to the effect that the [[Jews]] would win God's love if they willingly went to their deaths as [[martyr]]s. <ref>David Lewis Schaefer. ( [http://www.nationalreview.com/comment/comment-schaefer042803.asp What Did Gandhi Do?]. National Review. [[28 April]] [[2003]]. Retrieved [[21 March]] [[2006]]; Richard Grenier. [http://eserver.org/history/ghandi-nobody-knows.txt "The Gandhi Nobody Knows"]. ''[[Commentary Magazine]]''. March 1983. Retrieved [[21 March]] [[2006]].</ref> Some criticism of Gandhi has been challenged in a number of articles <ref>Jason DeParle [http://groups.google.com/group/soc.culture.indian/msg/38b451bdbfbefb61? WHY GANDHI DRIVES THE NEOCONSERVATIVES CRAZY]. Washington Monthly, September 1983</ref>.
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===Artistic depictions===
[[Image:Gandhimovie.jpg|thumb|The [[Gandhi (film)]] poster]]
The best-known artistic depiction of his life is the [[film]] ''[[Gandhi (film)|Gandhi]]'' (1982), directed by [[Richard Attenborough]], and starring [[Ben Kingsley]] (himself of [[Gujarat]]i parentage from his father's side) in the title role. However, the film has since been criticised by some post-colonial scholars, who argue that it depicts Gandhi as single-handedly bringing India to independence, and ignores other prominent figures (both elite and subaltern) in the anti-colonial struggle. ''The Making of the Mahatma'', directed by [[Shyam Benegal]], and starring Rajat Kapur, is a film about Gandhi's 21 years of life in [[South Africa]]. Gandhi's character is played by Anu Kapoor in the film ''[[Sardar (film)|Sardar]]'' (1993) about the life of [[Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel]].
 
The 1998 film ''Hey Ram'', made by [[Kamal Hasan]] portrays a would-be assassin of Gandhi and the dilemma faced by the would-be assassins in the turmoil of post-partition India. Gandhi's character is played by veteran actor [[Naseeruddin Shah]]. There are several works explorative of different aspects of Gandhi's life and his controversial actions: the play ''Mahatma vs. Gandhi'' explores his troubled relationship with his eldest son [[Harilal Gandhi]], and ''Me [[Nathuram Godse]] Boltoy'' ([[Marathi]]: ''I am Nathuram Godsé speaking'') explores the rationale and circumstances in which Gandhi's murder was plotted and carried out. The opera ''[[Satyagraha (opera)|Satyāgraha]] '', composed by [[Philip Glass]] (in 1980), with a [[libretto]] by himself and Constance De Jong is based on the life of Gandhi.
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==Notes==
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==Rujukan==
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* [http://www.ananda.org/inspiration/books/ay/44.html With Mahatma Gandhi in Wardha] Read about Paramahansa Yogananda's meeting with Gandhi
* [http://thoughtaudio.com/titlelist/0031-ghandi/index.html Quotations of Mahatma Gandhi] Free mp3 downloads
* [http://groups.google.com/group/soc.culture.indian/msg/38b451bdbfbefb61? Why Gandhi Drives the Neoconservatives Crazy] Jason DeParle's rebuttal of the Christian right wing's character assassination of Gandhi and their accompanying hate propaganda against Hinduism.
 
'''Analysis'''
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