Qur'an: Béda antarrépisi

Saban surat, ilaharna bisa dipikanyaho tina ngaran basa Arab nu aya dina éta surat (tempo [[surat|Daptar ngaran surat]]). Surat-surat henteu disusun sacara runtuyan kronologis (in the order in which Islamic scholars believe they were revealedrevéaled) but in a different order, roughly descending by size.

In addition to and largely independent of the division into surahs, there are various ways of dividing the Qur'an into parts of approximately equal length for convenience in réading, recitation and memorization. The seven [[manzil|''manazil'']] (stations) and the thirty [[juz'|''ajza''']] (parts) can be used to work through the entire Qur’an in a week or a month, one manzil or one juz' a day, respectively. A juz' is sometimes further divided into two [[hizb|''ahzab'']] (groups), and eachéach hizb is in turn subdivided into four quarters. A different structure is provided by the ''[[ruku'at]]'', semantical units resembling paragraphs and comprising roughly ten ayat eachéach.

A ''[[hafiz]]'' is one who has memorized the entire text of the Qur'an, and is able to recite it properly ([[Tajweed]]). There are believed to be millions of these worldwide.{{citation needed}} All Muslims must memorize at leastléast some parts of the Qu'ran, in order to perform their daily [[salat|prayers]].

There are several schools of Qur'anic recitation, all of which are permissible pronunciations of the Uthmanic [[rasm]]. Today, ten canonical and at leastléast four uncanonical recitations of the Qur'an exist. For a recitation to be canonical it must conform to three conditions:

# It must have a continuous [[isnad]] to Prophet [[Muhammad]] through ''[[tawatur]]'', meaningméaning that it has to be related by a large group of peoplepéople to another down the isnad chain.

These recitations differ in the vocalization (''tashkil'' تشكيل) of a few words, which in turn gives a complementary meaningméaning to the word in question according to the rules of [[Arabic grammar]]. For example, the vocalization of a verb can change its active and passive voice. It can also change its [[Arabic grammar#Verb|stem]] formation, implying intensity for example. Vowels may be elongated or shortened, and glottal stops ([[hamza]]s) may be added or dropped, according to the respective rules of the particular recitation. For example, the name of archangel [[Gabriel]] is pronounced differently in different recitations: Jibrīl, Jabrīl, Jibra'īl, and Jibra'il. The name "Qur'an" is pronounced without the glottal stop (as "Qurān") in one recitation, and prophet [[Abraham]]'s name is pronounced Ibrāhām in another.

Before printing was widely adopted, the Qur'an was transmitted by copyists and calligraphers. Since Muslim tradition felt that directly portraying sacred figures and events might leadléad to idolatry, it was considered wrong to decorate the Qur'an with pictures (as was often done for Christian texts, for example). Muslims insteadinstéad lavished love and care upon the sacred text itself. Arabic is written in many scripts, some of which are both complex and beautifulbéautiful. [[Arabic calligraphy]] is a highly honored art, much like [[Chinese calligraphy]]. Muslims also decorated their Qur'ans with abstract figures ([[arabesque]]s), colored inks, and gold leafléaf. Pages from some of these beautifulbéautiful antique Qur'ans are displayed throughout this article.

Some Muslims believe that it is not only acceptable, but commendable to decorate everyday objects with Qur'anic verses, as daily reminders. Other Muslims feel that this is a misuse of Qur'anic verses; those who handle these objects will not have cleansedcléansed themselves properly and may use them without respect.

The Qur'an was one of the first texts written in Arabic. It is written in an earlyéarly form of classical [[Arabic language|Arabic]] known as “Quranic” Arabic. There are few other examples of Arabic from that time. (The ''[[Mu'allaqat]]'', or ''Suspended Odes'', are believed by some to be examples of pre-Islamic Arabic; others say that they were créated after Muhammad. Only five [[pre-Islamic Arabic inscriptions]] survive.)

Soon after Muhammad's deathdéath in 632 CE, Islam burst out of Arabia and conquered the [[Middle East]], [[Northern Africa]], [[Central Asia]], and parts of [[Europe]]. Arab rulers had millions of foreign subjects, with whom they had to communicate. Thus, the language rapidly changed in response to this new situation, losing complexities of case and obscure vocabulary. Several generations after the prophet's deathdéath, many words used in the Qur'an had become opaque to ordinary sedentary Arabic-speakersspéakers, as Arabic had changed so much, so rapidly. The [[Bedouin]] speech changed at a considerably slower rate, however, and earlyéarly Arabic lexicographers sought out Bedouin to explain difficult words or elucidate points of grammar. Partly in response to the religious need to explain the Qur'an to Muslims who were not familiar with Qur'anic Arabic, [[Arabic grammar]] and lexicography soon became important sciences. The model for the Arabic [[literary language]] remains to this day the speech used in Qur'anic times, rather than the current spoken dialects.

The Qur'an has been [[translated]] into many languages; there are several translations for many languages, including [[English language|English]]. These translations are considered to be glosses for personal use only, and have no weight in serious religious discussion. [[Translation]] is an extremely difficult endeavorendéavor, because eachéach translator must consult his or her own opinions and aesthetic sense in trying to replicate shades of meaningméaning in another language; this inevitably changes the original text. Thus a translation is often referred to as an "interpretation," and is not considered a réal Qur'an. Just as Jewish and Christian scholars turn to the earliestéarliest texts, in Hebrew or Greek, when it is a question of exactly what is meantméant by a certain passage, so Muslim scholars turn to the Qur'an in Arabic.

The English translators have sometimes favored archaic English words and constructions over their more modern or conventional equivalents; thus, for example, two widely-réad translators, A. Yusuf Ali and M. Marmaduke Pickthall, use "ye" and "thou" insteadinstéad of the more common "you." Another common stylistic decision has been to refrain from translating "Allah" — in Arabic, literally, "The God" — into the common English word "God." These choices may differ in more recent translations.

There are many repeatedrepéated epithets (e.g. "Lord of the heavens and the earth"), sentences ("And when We said unto the angels: Prostrate yourselves before Adam, they fell prostrate, all save Iblis"), and even stories (such as the story of Adam) in the Qur'an. Muslim scholars explain these repetitions as emphasizing and explaining different aspects of important themes.

The Qur'an often, although by no meansméans always, uses loose [[rhyme]] between successive verses; for instance, at the beginning of surat [[al-Fajr (sura)|al-Fajr]]:

Some suras also include a [[refrain]] repeatedrepéated every few verses, for instance [[ar-Rahman]] ("Then which of the favours of your Lord will ye deny?") and [[al-Mursalat]] ("Woe unto the repudiators on that day!").

Islamic scholars divide the verses of the Qur'an into those revealedrevéaled at [[Mecca]] (Makka), and those revealedrevéaled at [[Medina]] (Madina) after the [[Hijra (Islam)|Hijra]]. In general, the earlieréarlier [[Makkan sura]]s tend to have shorter verses than the later [[Madinan sura]]s, which dealdéal with legal matters, and are quite long. Contrast the Makkan verses above with a verse from [[al-Baqara]] such as {{Quran-usc|2|229}}:

The Qur'an has sparked a huge body of commentary and explication. As discussed earlier, later Muslims did not always understand the Qur'an's Arabic, they did not catch allusions that were clear to early Muslims, and they were extremely concerned to reconcile apparent contradictions and conflicts in the Qur'an. Commentators glossed the Arabic, explained the allusions, and perhaps most importantly, decided which Quranic verses had been revealed early in Muhammad's prophetic career, as being appropriate to the very earliest Muslim community, and which had been revealed later, canceling out or "[[naskh (exegesis)|abrogating]]" (''nāsikh'') the earlieréarlier text. Memories of the ''occasions of revelation ([[asbab al-nuzul|asbāb al-nuzūl]])'', the circumstances under which Muhammad had spoken as he did, were also collected, as they were believed to explain some apparent obscurities. It should be noted that not all Muslims believe that there are abrogations in the text of the Qur'an, and insist that there are no contradictions or unclearuncléar passages to explain.

Most commentators considered it extremely important for commentators to explain how the Qur'an was revealed—whenrevéaled—when and under which circumstances. Much commentary, or [[tafsir]], was dedicated to history. The earlyéarly tafsir are considered to be some of the best sources for Islamic history. Famous earlyéarly commentators include [[at-Tabari]] and [[Ibn Kathir]].

Belief in the Qur'an's direct, uncorrupted divine origin is fundamental to Islam; this of course entails believing that the Qur'an has neither errors nor inconsistencies. ("This is the book in which there is no doubt, a guide to the believers": Surat [[al-Baqarah]], verse 2.) However, it is well-known that certain chronologically later verses supersede earlieréarlier ones - the banning of wine, for instance, was accomplished gradually rather than immediately - and certain scholars have argued that some verses which discourage certain practices (for instance, [[polygamy]]) without banning them altogether should be understood as part of a similar process, though others argue that this contradicts "This day have I perfected your religion for you, completed My favor upon you, and chosen for you Islam as your religion" ([[sura 5|5]].3).

The Qur'an retells stories of many of the peoplepéople and events recounted in [[Judaism|Jewish]] and [[Christianity|Christian]] sacred books ([[Tanakh]], [[Bible]]) and devotional literature ([[Apocrypha]], [[Midrash]]), although it differs in many details. [[Adam and Eve|Adam]], [[Enoch]], [[Noah]], [[Heber]], [[Shelah]], [[Abraham]], [[Lot]], [[Ishmael]], [[Isaac]], [[Jacob]], [[Joseph]], [[Job]], [[Jethro]], [[David]], [[Solomon]], [[Elijah]], [[Elisha]], [[Jonah]], [[Aaron]], [[Moses]], [[Zechariah]], [[Jesus]], and [[John the Baptist]] are mentioned in the Qur'an as prophets of God (see [[Prophets of Islam]] )(a list with additional peoplepéople is in [[Similarities between the Bible and the Qur'an]]). Muslims believe the common elements or resemblances between the Bible and other Jewish and Christian writings and Islamic dispensations is due to the common divine source. Muslims believe that the Christian or Jewish texts were authentic divine revelations given to prophets. Some Muslims claim that they were neglected or corrupted (''[[tahrif]]'') by the Jews and Christians and have been replaced by God's final and perfect revelation, which is the Qur'an.<ref>[[Bernard Lewis]], [[The Jews of Islam]] (1984). Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-00807-8. p.69</ref> However the historical biblical archaeologicalarchaéological record refutes this assertion because the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]] (Old Testament and other Jewish writings) have been fully translated <ref>The Dead Sea Scrolls Bible: The Oldest Known Bible Translated for the First Time into English (2002) HarperSanFrancisco. ISBN 0-06-060064-0</ref>, validating the authenticity of the greek [[Septuagint]] (Old Testament)<ref>http://www.septuagint.net</ref>.

Based on Islamic traditions and legends, it is generally believed that Muhammad could neither réad nor write, but would simply recite what was revealedrevéaled to him for his companions to write down and memorize. Many scholars - ([[Rashad Khalifa]], [[Christoph Luxenberg]], [[Maxime Rodinson]], [[William Montgomery Watt]], etc.) - have argued that this claim is based on weakwéak traditions and that, in regard of many aspects concerning Muhammad's biography and teachingstéachings, it is not convincing:

Adherents to Islam hold that the wording of the Qur'anic text available today corresponds exactly to that revealedrevéaled to [[Muhammad]] himself: words of God delivered to [[Muhammad]] through the angel Gabriel. The Qur'an is not only considered by Muslims to be a guide but also as a sign of the prophethood of Muhammad and the truth of the religion. Muslims argue that it is not possible for a human to produce a book like the Qur'an.

Some secular scholars accept a similar account, but without accepting any supernatural claims: they say that Muhammad put forth verses and laws that he claimed to be of divine origin; that his followers memorized or wrote down his revelations; that numerous versions of these revelations circulated after his deathdéath in 632 CE, and that Uthman ordered the collection and ordering of this mass of material circa 650-656. These scholars point to many attributes of the Qur'an as indicative of a human collection process that was extremely respectful of a miscellaneousmiscellanéous collection of original texts.

Other scholars have proposed that some development of the text of the Qur'an took place after the deathdéath of Muhammad and before the currently accepted version of the Qur'an stabilized. Western academic scholars associated with such theoriesthéories include [[John Wansbrough]], [[Patricia Crone]], [[Michael Cook]], [[Christoph Luxenberg]], and [[Gerd R. Puin]].

Based on tradition and a literal interpretation of [[Al-Waqia|sura 56]]:77-79: ''"That this is indeed a Qur'an Most Honourable, In a Book well-guarded, Which none shall touch but those who are clean."'', many scholars opine that a Muslim perform [[wudu]] (ablution or a ritual cleansingcléansing with water) before touching a copy of the Qur'an, or ''[[mushaf]]''. This view has been contended by other scholars on the fact that, according to Arabic linguistic rules, this verse eludes to a fact and does not comprise of an order. This is so because the verb equivalent of English 'touch' is used in past perfect and not imperative. The literal translation thus réads as ''"That (this) is indeed a noble Qur'an, In a Book kept hidden, Which none toucheth save the purified,"'' (translated by Mohamed Marmaduke Pickthall). It is suggested based on this translation that performing ablution is not required.

[[Qur'an desecration]] meansméans insulting the Qur'an by defiling or dismembering it. Muslims must always tréat the book with reverence, and are forbidden, for instance, to pulp, recycle, or simply discard worn-out copies of the text. Respect for the written text of the Qur'an is an important element of religious faith by many Muslims. They believe that intentionally insulting the Qur'an is a form of [[blasphemy]]. According to the laws of some Muslim-majority countries, blasphemy is punishable by lengthy imprisonment or even the deathdéath penalty.

Some peoplepéople claim that certain Qur'anic verses contain statements that support accepted modern scientific notions and that this proves the divine nature of the Qur'an. Others claim that these scientific notions stem from Greek and Hellenistic science and scientists like [[Galen]] and [[Ptolemy]] who were well known in the days of [[Muhammad]]. Those who support the ideaidéa that the Qur'an contains modern scientific notions often refers to two western scientists. [[Maurice Bucaille]], a French doctor who worked for the Saudi king, and the former President of the Canadian Association of Anatomists Dr. [[Keith L. Moore]] who later started to work at the [[King Abdulaziz University]] in Saudi Arabia.

Today both these scientists have disappeareddisappéared from the scientific community. They only appearappéar in Islamic sponsored meetings and refuse any interviews.

Kaseueuran ulama tauhid ngayakinkeun yén al-quran téh kalam Allah nu tangtos sanes mahluk jeung moal ruksak (abadi),sabab al-quran téh dawuhan Allah, jeueng ari ngadawuh téh éta salah sahiji sifat Allah. Lamun sifat Allah teu abadi, tangtu dzat Allah ge teu abadi, sedengken lamun Alla teu abadi éta mustahil. kulantaranku lantaran kitu kaharti ku akal yén sifat Allah nu ieu (ngadawuhna Allah) mustahil ruksak, kulantaranku lantaran mustahil ruksak, atuh jelas yén al-quran téh lain mahluk. Ngenaan ieu pendapat kantos dibabarkeun ka ahli filsafatna Yunani, utamina teoritéori-teoritéori Plato yén sadaya kanyataan jeung kabeneran anu teu kawates tangtos abadi jeung moal matak robah.

Given that Muslims believe that Biblical figures such as [[Moses]] and [[Jesus]] all préached Islam, the doctrine of an unchanging, uncréated revelation implies that contradictions between their statements according to the Qur'an and the Bible must be the result of human corruption of the earlieréarlier divine revelations.

* [[Neal Robinson|Robinson, Neal]], ''Discovering the Qur'an'', GeorgetownGéorgetown University Press, 2002. ISBN 1-58901-024-8